Advertisements employ many clever techniques to achieve the maximum impact desired, which in turn will maximise the profits and potential of the product or service available. Some focus on the visual, by emphasising the image whilst others use the concept of rhetoric in their appeal to the audience. As powerful they may be alone, when combined, together in unison, they are able to enhance and amplify the desired message, and ultimately convey this message in the most effective way. However, in order to consider how they work together to anchor meaning, it is first important to address how they work independently, so we fully understand how we as the audience read, interpret, and construct meaning from within the persuasive force of the image and rhetorical appeals of the text.

            Firstly, before we can interpret any kind of text, we need knowledge, knowledge of the world, social knowledge, and at the most basic level, the ability to at least make sense of it. Secondly, we need knowledge of the medium and the genre, in respect of what we expect to find in certain texts and whether it makes sense, and finally we need to be able to combine the first two and understand their interdependent relationship in the understanding of texts.

            The images produced in advertising are bursting with signs, and using the knowledge discussed above, we are able to read and interpret these signs. The science of these signs is known as semiotics. A sign can be anything that has meaning to the person seeing or using it. In its most basic terms, semiotics can be summarised and divided into three main areas: the sign itself, what that sign is referring to and the users of the sign. The first refers to all of the signs available and how it relates to the people using it, who are understood as constructers, understanders and users of the sign. The second, relates to the framework of codes we employ in the understanding of the signs, whether they are cultural or social, and the third refers to those who use and create the meaning from the sign, and how this meaning and understanding is culturally defined. However, in order for the audience to make sense of the message, it has to employ the ‘appropriate signs and symbols to stimulate the individual’s perception into action.’ (Moriarty, 1995. P1)

            Images are very important within a visual culture, as they much of a sign system as language is. In terms of the signs we see, there is a very important two-part model to consider which addresses the representation and meaning. In semiotics, a sign is something that stands for something else. Ferdinand de Saussure explains that, the sign process involves a ‘Signifier-a word, sound or object that represents a Signified, which is the concept, idea or thought that you want to communicate.’ (in Moriarty 1995. P1). Charles. S. Pierce categorises the type of signification as iconic, symbolic or indexical. Iconic signs are literal and representational, that ‘in some culturally relevant respect, the sign strikes us as similar to its object.’ (Vestergaard. 1985. P36) for example, a photograph of a dog,  resembles a real life dog; we understand that it is not a real dog in front of us so it is therefore iconic of a dog. Indexical, on the other hand, is a clue which ‘links or connects things that occur simultaneously in nature’ (Moriarty, 1995. P2) an example being, smoke is indexical of fire, all of which are ‘natural co-occurrences’ (Cook, 1992. P7.) A symbol however, employs more complex relations as it ‘represents something else by convention or by association’ (Moriarty, 1995. P2) for example, a dove can represent peace. However, this can prove to be problematic as symbols are socially and culturally defined and can vary across different groups of people and time.

            A more complex form of the symbolic representation is that of metaphor, which links two ideas with the resemblance based on an analogy. Metaphors are a key player in the linguistic rhetorical appeals, and in the use of image. Visual metaphors ‘typically use a concrete form- - such as buildings, flags, statues, people, and possessions- - to represent abstract ideas such as freedom, change, intellect, hope, endurance, equality, or quality.’ (Moriarty 1995. P2).  More simplistically, colour can be ‘treated as metaphors for nature’ (Brierley, 1995. P181) for example, green to symbolise the grass and trees, brown the natural earth, blue, the skies, orangey and yellow tones for fruit. Similarly, ‘colour can be used to set the tone.’ (Brierley, 1995. P181) Such is the extent to which metaphor is being used in advertising today, Leiss et al, contend that ‘metaphor is the very heart of the basic communication form used in modern advertising’ (Brierley, 1995. P181)

            When presented with a text, and interpreting its meanings, there is always what Barthes (1964) refers to as the denotation and the connotation of the image. He defines denotation as ‘the information, which can be read out of a picture without recourse to cultural conventions’ the literal or commonsense meaning of a sign. Connotations on the other hand are dependant upon our socio-cultural and ‘personal associations of the sign, therefore can differ through gender, ethnicity, age, and so on as they all impact and shape our connotations of a text. An example of this can be seen through a Heinz Salad Cream advert. (See Figure 1) The image presented to us denotes a sausage curled up on a surface. However, given the context of the advert, through using our knowledge, this connotes, by playing on the shape, colour and positioning on an ambiguous surface, dog excrement. What this then suggests is that the product is so tasty, it can even make the most horrible and unlikely things taste wonderful too! This demonstrates what Barthes calls naturalising the photography. This is where ‘the exact replication of reality “naturalises the symbolic message…innocent[ing] the semantic artifice of connotation”’ (Barthes, 1977 in Hancher 1995. P1.)

            Images in advertising also employ a technique known as intertextuality, which is demonstrated in one of the Smirnoff Vodka advertisements. The advert depicts a landing in an old house where it appears as if someone had died, as there is a chalk body outline on the floor. Nevertheless, because the man in question has drunk Smirnoff vodka, he is not dead which is suggestive of immortal or magical powers the drink has. However, this message, that Smirnoff has the powers to bring you back to life is completely dependant upon how different genres and media ‘cross-reference’ as they borrow conventions and codes from one another. In this particular case the audience would have to be familiar with detective style productions such as the series Colombo on television, from which this kind of scene has been borrowed in order for the audience to recognise what has happened and to decode the preferred meaning, and the ‘power’ of the vodka.

            While images alone can be powerful, they are open to so many different readings, Barthes (1964) points out that ‘images are ambiguous or polysemic, where verbal messages are  (or at least can be) unambiguous or monosemic.’ (Vestergaard. 1985 P34.). Text, therefore is a very important aspect of the advertisement, as it can provide clarity and serve as an unambiguous description. However, this is not always the case, as when employing the use of rhetoric in the text, the meaning can vary greatly and in effect create emphasis on this meaning. Barthes also noted how ‘from Aristotle up until the advent of modern social psychology, the discipline of rhetoric was the primary repository of Western thinking about persuasion (Barthes 1970/1988 in Mc Quarrie and Mick, 1996. P1) and it is this very art of persuasion that we experience when we encounter the influence in adverts.

 The driving force behind rhetoric, whatever form it takes, is to find out which way will be ‘the most effective in swaying an audience.’ (Mc Quarrie and Mick, 1996. P1) The language games used help the product stand out they cause a distraction and often force us to think twice, and whilst doing this, aiding the memory of the product. Sean Brierley defines rhetoric as ‘the technique of using speech and writing to maximise impact and aid memorability.’ (Brierley, 1995. P184) Various techniques used include metaphor and simile, as Valerie Noble identifies how ‘in joining like to unlike, familiar to unfamiliar (the) strange combinations and associations are more likely to be remembered than the ordinary.’ (Noble, 1970. P1). Such slogans and catchphrases are particularly effective as Lucas and Britt discovered that when they are picked up by people, they later ‘find themselves making important market choices on the basis of these same compelling words.’ (Noble 1970. P2)  An example of metaphor is in the name, whether it’s the brand or the product itself such as the Christian Dior perfume, ‘Poison.’  Wolfe (1989) notes how this name has an immediate impact because ‘the apparent contradiction between product description or denotation – a lethal substance – and connotation a seductive one’ (Beasley, 2002. P115) as it symbolises something tempting and wicked.

Many more cunning methods are employed in rhetoric, which include the use of jingles and slogans, emotive language, use of the imperative form, speech acts, formulas, intentional omission, absence of language, repetition, ambiguity, paradox, as well as puns and rhyme. Jingles and slogans ‘wheedle, cajole, brag, promise, guarantee, gild or stultify, (and) are all a direct appeal to the emotions.’ (Noble, 1970. P4). The emotional appeal works well, as certain words provoke certain reactions. However, some believe consumers are becoming weary of it. Crompton suggests that ‘facts presented clearly, sympathetically, and with inexorable logic-and leavened with a little emotion work best of all.’ (Brierley, 1995, P183) Use of the imperative form increases the chance of what the consumer believes as it created the  ‘effect of advice coming from an unseen authoritative source.’ (Beasley, 2002. P120). With the absence of language, it suggests the product is powerful enough to speak for itself. Intentional omission on the other hand works by suggesting there is a secret and we are being invited to learn all about it making us feel special: ‘it sets up a puzzle the consumers are invited to resolve.’ (Brierley, 1995. P187.) Finally, puns and rhyme work particularly well. Repetition is part of this as it can include ‘repeating the same sound through alliteration and assonance, Beanz, Meanz, Heinz’ (Brierley, 1995. P185). Also through alliteration by stressing the first letter of the phrase, makes us dwell on it and aids memorability.

Other techniques include word play, the use of concrete and fuzzy words, for example the meaning and interpretation of the word ‘beauty’ varies across culture and from person to person. Weasel words such as ‘IF’ subtly change the meaning, as it is just a supposition. Buzz words, are employed to present us with ideas that appear as unproblematic. Particular examples include words such as ‘organic’ or natural when applying it to food, we do not actually know what they mean but accept them. Celebrity endorsement is sued in products such as cars and make up and works through the power of association. Novel, or constructed words are also used, in a ‘Cointreau’ advertisement, a phrase is constructed ‘Be cointreauversial’ (Sells and Gonzalez, 2002 P2) this almost acts as an in-joke, and we in turn feel clever understanding it and associate these good feeling with the product. It is through the clever use of adjective and verbs that adverts address us effectively. Leech (1966) found that ‘Get’ was used far more often than ‘Buy’ as the latter ‘has some unpleasant connotations (money and parting with it) which ‘get’ lacks.’ (Vestergaard, 1985 P 44)

The clever use of word play and other such techniques I have examined, that form rhetoric can be incredibly persuasive. However, when combining this with the use of image, the impact is greater. Therefore, when text and picture co-occur, it is what Barthes refers to as anchorage, as each emphasises the meaning within the other, and ultimately emphasising the sales message by making it stronger. Some particular examples use powerful images and employ the use of rhetoric, which together create the effective message the and makers want to convey.

The most recent advertising campaign for Barnardos illustrates the intelligent use of image and rhetoric. The advertisements were placed predominantly in broadsheet newspapers. This worked particularly well because of the size, therefore the image was able to have more impact. Also, the readership was ‘more likely to be responsive to the advertisings challenging content’ (Barnardos Web page). These adverts employ rhetoric in terms of both the image and text. The text reads, ‘There are no silver spoons for children born into poverty.’ Which plays on the proverb ‘born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth,’ meaning to have opportunity and prosperity. This is an example of ‘artful deviation’, which is the force behind rhetoric. The meaning behind the message is anchored and reinforced by the images, which plays on the fact that children born into poverty do not have such opportunities. The advert uses the images to metaphorically demonstrate how it will affect their future. For example, the Methylated spirits represents alcohol misuse (see figure 2) the syringe, drug abuse (see figure 3) and the cockroach, bad living conditions (see figure 4). The repetition of the catchphrase, combined with the visual repetition of the baby in different situations ‘adds emphasis and consistency’ (Brierley, 1995. P 185) enhancing and amplifying the desperation of the situation and the need to help and support the organisation to prevent this from happening.

Through the use of juxtapositioning, as the adverts appeared in November’s Big Issue (Nov 17-23 2003. No 383), the three mentioned above appeared followed by a fourth which featured a baby actually with a silver spoon in its mouth with the headline, ‘If only every child was born with a silver spoon.’ The aim with ‘juxtapositioning and contradiction is to highlight the difference’ (Brierley, 1995 P186), which adds impact and drives the message home. Complaints were made and consequently the campaign was withdrawn. Andrew Nebel, the director of marketing and communications believes that while the ads may have shocked some people, they did however ‘succeed in highlighting the very serious issue of child poverty in the UK and challenging the blinkered views of those who claim it does not exist.’ (Barnardos Web page p2) Through simply ‘telling it like it is’ the campaign is a perfect example of how combining the clever use of language being played on and the powerful image drives the message home. The very fact that they were withdrawn, emphasises the impact which the advert overall had on the audience amplifying and enhancing the need to support such an organisation.

The use of red in the ‘T-Zone’ advert (see figure 5) instantly attracts attention as it is indexical of danger, or can be seen as a warning. It also conjures images of heat and passion. In western culture we read a page from top left down to the bottom right so therefore the way in which we read a text or picture can be said to have ‘been influenced by the way we read a page.’ (Vestergaard, 1985. P44). On first impressions the advert appears to be unambiguous; the images and text appear unproblematic. As we read the text in the top left corner, “You too can have legs like these” in bold, our eyes then scan down the page, to the bottom right, then, in an almost voyeuristic fashion, our eyes move up the legs of the model. The assumption is that if you use the cream featured, your legs will look like this. However, this is clearly problematic, as it appears to be appealing to women, but is employing masculine voyeuristic techniques. On further reading it is revealed that the cream is in fact ‘T-Zone Men’ and is found in a men’s magazine. Independently, the image now appears as being ambiguous, what is it representing now? The text then acts as method of relaying the information and anchoring the message and meaning. What the advert denotes is having legs like the ones shown. It is through the rhetorical means of the image and text that we can read the connotations. The subtext reads, ‘Make yourself infinitely more desirable to the opposite sex by sparing them the discomfort of stubble burn and chapped thighs.’ This then leads down to the product, which is ‘Hemp oil- Chill out’ for ‘razor burn relief.’ Combining all of the encoded messages, we can read that by using this gel, you will prevent razor burn and therefore will be able to shave more often. This suggests that you will be more appealing to the girls because of your appearance but also because you will be ‘sparing them the discomfort of stubble burn and chapped thighs.’ This alludes to sexual acts, which suggests this gel will improve their sex life. With this reading it becomes clear that the word ‘have’ in the headline is metaphorical as it does not literally mean that if the man uses the gel his legs will look like this but it implies that by using the product they will be ‘infinitely more desirable.’ and so will get a girlfriend with legs like this, not only because she will be just as attractive, but also because they will not be ‘chapped’ or have ‘stubble burn.’ This acts as an example of how, together, image and text anchor meaning, ‘The text directs the reader through the signifieds of the image…remote control[ing] him towards a meaning chosen in advance.’ (Barthes 1977 in Hancher, 1995).

Viewers are left feeling if they have come to their own conclusions of what is going on and why. ‘But, their own conclusions should always fall in-line with the preferred reading.’ (Brierley, 1995. P187) In combining image and text, this increases the signs available for understanding; this means that adverts can appear as being more ambiguous and intelligent, but one will anchor the other to ensure it is understood and not lost on the audience. In doing this and presenting the viewer with puzzles and enigmas to solve and understand is what Barthes calls the ‘pleasure of the text—the reward that comes from processing a clever arrangement of signs’ (Mc Quarrie and Mick 1996. P3) this leads us to feel good about ourselves and in turn the associations of such feeling are made with the product. This fully demonstrates how together, image and text anchor and reinforce one another to strengthen the sales message, whether it is by amplifying the message, or enhancing the meaning so we understand what the product offers, it is an incredibly effective means of advertising.

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